Vaccines in Exotic Animals
Kristin Claricoates, DVM
Vaccines are designed with a goal of preventing an animal from becoming ill from an infectious disease. Many of the species we see in Chicago Exotics Animal Hospital are susceptible to a large number of the same diseases that affect domestic animals. However, while domestic animals have vaccinations specifically designed for them, vaccinations of our exotic animals are not specifically approved for exotic animal species. This means that because these exotic species are less prevalent pets, the effects of vaccines in these species was not studied in detail so the vaccines are prescribed extra-label. The vaccination protocols for each species, as a result, is based on limited published information, and relative risk the disease might have for the species from the infectious agent or from the vaccination itself.
The goal of a vaccine is for the body to develop antibodies against the infection you are trying to preventing against. The vaccine must be similar enough to the infectious agent to get a mild immune response so the body will have memory against the real virus but benign enough that it does not cause any strong response against the vaccine. Some animals may react strongly to a vaccine, which is why we sometimes give an antihistamine prior to a shot. There are two major types of vaccines, vaccines that are made with killed viruses (also called inactivated virus), and vaccines that use live viruses that have been modified so they are no longer a threat to your pet. Modified viruses occasionally run the risk of being able to mutate into a virus that can be pathogenic, or capable of causing an infection in your pet. Because certain viruses are very deadly, like rabies, those viruses are always killed virus vaccines. Why use modified viruses at all if there is a risk that they can mutate? Killed virus vaccines get a weaker immune response and vaccination with these viruses must be more frequent. Although modified vaccines run the risk of an infection as a result of the vaccine, this is a very low chance and those provide stronger and longer immunity.
For our exotic animal species, who do not have vaccines specific to their species, it has been reported that there can be a lack of seroconversion, antibody production, sustained protection, and induction of the disease resulting in morbidity and mortality in a variety of species, particularly for rabies and distemper. Even so, vaccinations are strongly recommended based on a number of factors. Many diseases preventable by vaccinations such as canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus, feline calicivirus, feline panleukopenia virus, and rabies virus have caused death in unvaccinated exotic animals. Unfortunately, the biology of many of these preventable diseases (incubation period, transmissibility, etc) in exotic mammals is often unknown. Captivity may enhance the risk of acquiring disease based on food sources, exposure to other species who can act as hosts for the virus, and an unknown degree of exposure of other exotic animals, which is unlikely to occur in nature. Core vaccines are designated as those that protect captive animals from life-threatening, globally distributed diseases. The determination of protection has largely been based on studies in domestic species; nonetheless, based on current knowledge, these vaccines deserve full consideration for inclusion into vaccination regimens for captive exotic mammals.
In exotic animal medicine, we prefer inactivated or recombinant viral or bacterial vaccines to modified-live virus (MLV) vaccines, which have the potential to cause disease in exotic mammals and abortions in hoofstock. As a result, we tend to use inactivated rabies vaccines, and if it can be found, inactivated distemper vaccines. The use of MLV distemper vaccines in exotic mammals may result in postvaccinal myelitis or distemper.
Before considering a vaccine in an exotic animal, the following should be considered: possession of the exotic animal should be legal per state community and other applicable laws. Informed consent of the owner and discussion of the availability or lack of safety and efficacy trials associated with the use of this vaccine in the animal should be documented in the medical record. Use of product and vaccination procedures with record of previous success such as those used or recommended in zoo (Association of Zoos and Aquariums or American Association of Zoo Veterinarians) protocols, and those with publications supporting their safety and efficacy in the species, should be considered. Vaccination may be foregone in the face of lack of data to support that a certain disease occurs, despite antibody presence, in some species.
As in domestic species, animals that have clinical signs of any illness should not be vaccinated because of the health risks associated with this. Although titer determinations may be useful for evaluation of vaccination in exotic mammals, the lack of antibodies does not equate to lack of immune response. This method quantifies only the humoral immune response, not the cell-mediated aspect of the body’s response, and protective titer levels for exotic mammals have not been evaluated or established. Some owners elect to test titers on an annual basis and vaccinate as needed, but again because we can only test the titers of the humoral immune response, this is not the most accurate test to determine if your pet is protected. Examples of titers that may be assessed include rabies, distemper, parvovirus, and leptospirosis, as well as the encephalitic viruses and many viruses affecting nonhuman primates that also affect people.
Below is a list of recommended vaccines based on species, per the Merck Veterinary manual.
Vaccines recommended by Merck for exotic animal species
Copyright © 2009-2015 Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, N.J., U.S.A. Privacy Terms of Use Permissions
Works Cited:
"Overview of Vaccination of Exotic Mammals." Vaccination of Exotic Mammals: Merck Veterinary Manual. Ed. Jill Heatley and Jeffrey Musser. The Merck Veterinary Manual, Aug. 2014. Web. 05 Feb. 2015.
Kristin Claricoates, DVM
Vaccines are designed with a goal of preventing an animal from becoming ill from an infectious disease. Many of the species we see in Chicago Exotics Animal Hospital are susceptible to a large number of the same diseases that affect domestic animals. However, while domestic animals have vaccinations specifically designed for them, vaccinations of our exotic animals are not specifically approved for exotic animal species. This means that because these exotic species are less prevalent pets, the effects of vaccines in these species was not studied in detail so the vaccines are prescribed extra-label. The vaccination protocols for each species, as a result, is based on limited published information, and relative risk the disease might have for the species from the infectious agent or from the vaccination itself.
The goal of a vaccine is for the body to develop antibodies against the infection you are trying to preventing against. The vaccine must be similar enough to the infectious agent to get a mild immune response so the body will have memory against the real virus but benign enough that it does not cause any strong response against the vaccine. Some animals may react strongly to a vaccine, which is why we sometimes give an antihistamine prior to a shot. There are two major types of vaccines, vaccines that are made with killed viruses (also called inactivated virus), and vaccines that use live viruses that have been modified so they are no longer a threat to your pet. Modified viruses occasionally run the risk of being able to mutate into a virus that can be pathogenic, or capable of causing an infection in your pet. Because certain viruses are very deadly, like rabies, those viruses are always killed virus vaccines. Why use modified viruses at all if there is a risk that they can mutate? Killed virus vaccines get a weaker immune response and vaccination with these viruses must be more frequent. Although modified vaccines run the risk of an infection as a result of the vaccine, this is a very low chance and those provide stronger and longer immunity.
For our exotic animal species, who do not have vaccines specific to their species, it has been reported that there can be a lack of seroconversion, antibody production, sustained protection, and induction of the disease resulting in morbidity and mortality in a variety of species, particularly for rabies and distemper. Even so, vaccinations are strongly recommended based on a number of factors. Many diseases preventable by vaccinations such as canine distemper virus, canine parvovirus, feline calicivirus, feline panleukopenia virus, and rabies virus have caused death in unvaccinated exotic animals. Unfortunately, the biology of many of these preventable diseases (incubation period, transmissibility, etc) in exotic mammals is often unknown. Captivity may enhance the risk of acquiring disease based on food sources, exposure to other species who can act as hosts for the virus, and an unknown degree of exposure of other exotic animals, which is unlikely to occur in nature. Core vaccines are designated as those that protect captive animals from life-threatening, globally distributed diseases. The determination of protection has largely been based on studies in domestic species; nonetheless, based on current knowledge, these vaccines deserve full consideration for inclusion into vaccination regimens for captive exotic mammals.
In exotic animal medicine, we prefer inactivated or recombinant viral or bacterial vaccines to modified-live virus (MLV) vaccines, which have the potential to cause disease in exotic mammals and abortions in hoofstock. As a result, we tend to use inactivated rabies vaccines, and if it can be found, inactivated distemper vaccines. The use of MLV distemper vaccines in exotic mammals may result in postvaccinal myelitis or distemper.
Before considering a vaccine in an exotic animal, the following should be considered: possession of the exotic animal should be legal per state community and other applicable laws. Informed consent of the owner and discussion of the availability or lack of safety and efficacy trials associated with the use of this vaccine in the animal should be documented in the medical record. Use of product and vaccination procedures with record of previous success such as those used or recommended in zoo (Association of Zoos and Aquariums or American Association of Zoo Veterinarians) protocols, and those with publications supporting their safety and efficacy in the species, should be considered. Vaccination may be foregone in the face of lack of data to support that a certain disease occurs, despite antibody presence, in some species.
As in domestic species, animals that have clinical signs of any illness should not be vaccinated because of the health risks associated with this. Although titer determinations may be useful for evaluation of vaccination in exotic mammals, the lack of antibodies does not equate to lack of immune response. This method quantifies only the humoral immune response, not the cell-mediated aspect of the body’s response, and protective titer levels for exotic mammals have not been evaluated or established. Some owners elect to test titers on an annual basis and vaccinate as needed, but again because we can only test the titers of the humoral immune response, this is not the most accurate test to determine if your pet is protected. Examples of titers that may be assessed include rabies, distemper, parvovirus, and leptospirosis, as well as the encephalitic viruses and many viruses affecting nonhuman primates that also affect people.
Below is a list of recommended vaccines based on species, per the Merck Veterinary manual.
Vaccines recommended by Merck for exotic animal species
Copyright © 2009-2015 Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Whitehouse Station, N.J., U.S.A. Privacy Terms of Use Permissions
Works Cited:
"Overview of Vaccination of Exotic Mammals." Vaccination of Exotic Mammals: Merck Veterinary Manual. Ed. Jill Heatley and Jeffrey Musser. The Merck Veterinary Manual, Aug. 2014. Web. 05 Feb. 2015.
Vaccinations Recommended for Exotic Mammals
Animal Group |
Disease or Vaccine |
Vaccine Type (a) |
Vaccination Frequency |
Primates (especially Pongidae): monkey, ape |
Poiliomyelitis |
MLV |
Annual |
Measles |
MLV |
Annual |
|
Mumps |
MLV |
Annual |
|
Rubella |
MLV |
Annual |
|
DPT (b) or Tetanus |
K |
Annual |
|
Canidae: fox, wolf, coyote, wild dog |
Canine Distemper |
Vectored, MLV (d) |
Annual |
Canine adenovirus 2 |
MLV |
Annual |
|
Canine parvovirus |
K |
Annual |
|
Canine parainfluenza |
MLV |
Annual |
|
Leptospira bacterin-CI (c) |
K |
Annual |
|
Felidae: exotic cats |
Feline panleukopenia |
K/MLV (d) |
Annual |
Feline rhinotracheitis |
K/MLV |
Annual |
|
Feline caliciviruses |
K/MLV |
Annual |
|
Mustelidae/Viverridae/Procyonidae: raccoon, skunk, ferret, coati, genet, otter, weasel, mink, kinkajou |
Canine distemper |
K/MLV, Vectored (d) |
Annual |
Feline panleukopenia |
K/MLV |
Annual |
|
Canine adenovirus 2 bacterin-CI |
K/MLV |
Annual |
|
Leptospira bacterin-CI |
K |
Annual |
|
Ursidae: bear |
Canine adenovirus 2 |
K |
Annual |
Leptospira bacterin-CI |
K |
Annual |
|
Hyaenidae: hyena, aardwolf |
Canine distemper (e) |
K/MLV |
Annual |
Feline panleukopenia (e) |
K/MLV |
Annual |
|
Artiodactyla/ Ruminantia: deer, sheep, cattle, goat, antelope, camelids |
BVD (f) (in endemic areas) |
K |
Annual |
8-way Clostridium bacterin |
K |
Annual |
|
5-way Leptospira bacterin |
K |
Annual or every 6 months |
|
Parainfluenza 3 |
MLV |
Annual |
|
Perissodactyla Equidae: ass, zebra |
Tetanus |
K |
Annual |
EEE (g) |
K |
Annual |
|
WEE (h) |
K |
Annual |
|
Equine rhinopneumonitis |
K |
Every 4 months |
|
West Nile virus |
K, DNA |
Annual |
|
Influenza |
K |
Annual |
|
Suidae/Tayassuidae: pigs, peccaries |
5-way Leptospira bacterin |
K |
Annual |
Erysipelas bacterin |
K |
Annual |
(a) MLV = modified live virus; K = killed
(b) DPT = diptheria, pertussis, and tetanus
(c) Canicola or Icterohaemorrhagiae
(d) Not ferret origin; recombinant canarypox origin preferred
(e) Controversial; some believe hyaenids are not susceptible
(f) BVD = bovine viral diarrhea
(g) EEE = Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
(h) WEE = Western equine encephalomyelitis
(b) DPT = diptheria, pertussis, and tetanus
(c) Canicola or Icterohaemorrhagiae
(d) Not ferret origin; recombinant canarypox origin preferred
(e) Controversial; some believe hyaenids are not susceptible
(f) BVD = bovine viral diarrhea
(g) EEE = Eastern equine encephalomyelitis
(h) WEE = Western equine encephalomyelitis